Life & Career

• Studied at Williams Conservatory (under Alberto Williams), then National Conservatory 1936–38 with José André & Athos Palma
• First acknowledged composition: ballet Panambi (1937) — same year as Danzas Argentinas
• 1942: Guggenheim Fellowship — studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood, USA (1945–47)
• Professor at National Conservatory of Argentina 1941–45; students included Astor Piazzolla
• Director of La Plata Conservatory; Dean at Argentine Catholic University; Director of Torcuato di Tella Institute (1962–69)
• Lived in USA during Peron regime; final decade in Geneva

Compositional Style (3 Phases)

• Objective Nationalism (early): Direct folk material — Danzas Argentinas, Panambi, Estancia
• Subjective Nationalism (mid): Less explicit folk, personal Argentinian — 1st Piano Sonata, 1st String Quartet
• Expressionism (late): Atonal, 12-tone (like Alban Berg) — Piano Concertos, operas Don Rodrigo, Bomarzo, Beatrix Cenci

Piano Works

• 3 Sonatas, 2 Concertos, Danzas Argentinas Op. 2, Malambo Op. 7
• 12 Preludios americanos Op. 12, Suite de danzas criollas Op. 15, Toccata
• Chamber: Piano Quintet, Cello Sonata, Pampeana No. 1 (violin & piano), Pampeana No. 2 (cello & piano)
• Other major works: Operas (Don Rodrigo, Bomarzo, Beatrix Cenci), Ballets (Panambi, Estancia), Violin Concerto, 2 Cello Concertos, Harp Concerto, 3 String Quartets

About the Danzas Argentinas

Three dances composed in 1937 — an early work while studying at the National Conservatory in Buenos Aires. An example of his "objective nationalist" style with direct folk material.

General Stylistic Characteristics

I. Danza del viejo boyero (Dance of the old herdsman)

• Tonal centre: E; Phrygian mode (white keys)
• Bitonality: Right hand on white keys (Phrygian), left hand on black keys (pentatonic Eb minor)
• Form: Rondo (ABACA)
• Right hand chords contain major/minor 2nds — biting dissonance; narrow pitch range melody
• Section B: left hand ostinato; right hand often syncopated; pitch and volume rise
• Coda (b.78–82): guitar open string arpeggio reminder; ends on unharmonised tonic note E in deep bass
• Hemiola: cross rhythm grouped as 3/4
• Animato e allegro = fast and animated

II. Danza de la moza donosa (Dance of the sad maiden)

• Key: A minor; reminiscent of a Criollo (lyrical Argentine folk song)
• Form: Ternary (ABA)
• A (b.1–24): Plaintive melody above rhythmic ostinato; 4-bar phrases each ending with a perfect cadence; modulates to C major (relative major) at b.12–15
• B (b.25–59): Begins soave; harmony based on 4ths/5ths rather than triads; reverse cycle of 5ths: C major → G major → D major → C major → A major → C major → A minor
• A (b.59–79): Opening theme returns, all in A minor, harmonised in thirds
• Coda: Molto lento; ends on A major chord (Tierce de Picardie) with added major and minor 6th, lontano
• Dolcemente espressivo, cantando, tempo rubato

III. Danza del gaucho matrero (Dance of the artful gaucho)

• Key: C major (tonal centre); Form: Loose ternary (ABA)
• Constant quaver pulse — characteristic of the Malambo (vigorous dance, men only, no singing)
• Section A: parallel rising 5ths (left hand), falling 3rds (right hand), Db major scales, chords of 4ths with added 2nd
• Main Theme (b.58–70): C major; left hand dominant/tonic arpeggios; melody harmonised in parallel major triads (bitonality)
• b.70–104: Bitonal — left hand Db major, right hand C major. Tritone (F#) used sff at b.94–96
• Section B (b.105–155): Diatonic, C major and Ab major; tonic/dominant drone; cross rhythms and syncopations
• Coda: All C major, glissandi, ends with tonic chord with added 7th
• Furiosamente ritmico e energico = furious rhythm and energy; salvaggio = savagely

Contemporaries of Ginastera

Aaron Copland (American), Shostakovich (Russian), Samuel Barber (American), Astor Piazzolla (Argentinian), Benjamin Britten (English), Leonard Bernstein (American).

Life & Career

• Born Mirrie Solomon in Sydney; showed prodigious talent as a child
• Formal piano lessons with an aunt from age 5; began composing at 15
• Rhapsody for piano and orchestra performed while still a teenager
• WWI prevented study in Europe; scholarship to NSW Conservatorium of Music, Sydney
• Teachers included Alfred Hill — one of Australia's pre-eminent composers
• 1919: Appointed Assistant Professor of Harmony at the Conservatorium
• 1921: Married Alfred Hill; continued composing but often subordinated ambitions to husband's work
• 1944: Retired from Conservatorium; 1960s: examiner for AMEB
• 1980: Awarded OBE for services to music
• Composed more than 500 pieces, mostly shorter works for younger performers
• Some compositions incorporated elements of Aboriginal music (recorded by anthropologist Charles Mountford)

Piano Compositions

• Aboriginal pieces: Aboriginal rhythms, Aboriginal song, Brolga, The Kunkarankara women, Nalda of the echo, To the whirlwind
• Cinderella suite, In reflective mood, The leafy lanes of Kent, Lament, Maori folk tune
• Prelude, Rhapsody, The unquiet ocean, Will o' the wisp, Willow wind, The wonder of the night
• Collections for young students: Child fancies, Fun in the sun, Jolly wallaby

Other Compositions

• Orchestral: Fantasia, Symphony in A: Arnhem Land
• Chamber: String quartet, piano trio
• Songs and choral music

About The Leafy Lanes of Kent

Composed 1950. Kent is a county in south-east England (Dover coastline, Canterbury Cathedral, picturesque farmland). Larry Sitsky notes Hill was "expressing that yearning towards the mother country England that was so much a part of the Australian ethos in the first half of the twentieth century."

Structure: Ternary (AABA), E major

• A (b.1–10): Main theme in E major, 4-part choral texture. Melody mostly hexatonic (6-note subset of E major; A used only once). Root position tonic chord avoided until final bar — harmony wanders "like a pleasant stroll." First chord: dominant 7th → chord vi (interrupted progression). Many minor triads (vi, iii) create pensive character.
• A (b.11–20): Restated — melody in different registers (octave lower b.11–12; doubled higher b.13–14, 17–18). Wider pitch range. Final tonic chord has added 6th (C#).
• B (b.21–36): Slower tempo, continuous semiquaver pulse divided between hands. Varying time signatures create notated rubato effect. Suggests F major (distantly related to E major — E becomes leading note of F). No closing cadences in B section. Transition (b.32–36): D minor suggestion via tritone motive; tritone becomes perfect 5th in b.36 (dominant 9th of E major) to prepare return.
• A (b.37–46): Returns in E major. Melody now ends on upper tonic note, tonic chord with added 6th.
• Coda (b.47–50): Returns to episode tempo/figuration. Prolongs tonic 6th harmony; ii7–V7–I progression; added 6th in final chord.

Romantic Characteristics

English "Pastoral" Style Characteristics

Key Terms

• Andante: at an easy walking pace
• Meno mosso: slower (less movement)
• Allargando: becoming broader (slower)
• Smorzando: dying away
• Hexatonic: using 6-note subset of a scale
• Upper mordent: written-out ornament (as in b.6 grace notes)

Contemporaries of Mirrie Hill

Alfred Hill (Australian, 1870–1960), Ralph Vaughan Williams (English, 1872–1958), Percy Grainger (Australian, 1882–1961), Margaret Sutherland (Australian, 1897–1984), John Antill (Australian, 1904–1986), Dmitri Kabalevsky (Russian, 1904–1987).

Life & Career

• Father Leopold: composer & vice Kapellmeister to Archbishop of Salzburg
• Prodigious talent: composing by age 5; extensive European concert tours from age 6
• Met Haydn in Vienna; influenced by J.C. Bach and Italian opera
• Left Archbishop's service 1781; settled in Vienna hoping for a new post
• For several years without official patronage — unusual for an 18th-century musician
• Died in poverty in Vienna, 1791, aged 35

Major Works

• Piano: 21 Concertos (note: some docs say 21, others 27), 18 Sonatas, 16 Sets of Variations, 6 Fantasies
• Opera: The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, The Magic Flute (16 operas total)
• Orchestral: 41 Symphonies (incl. Paris, Linz, Jupiter); concertos for violin (5), horn (4), flute (2), clarinet, flute & harp
• Chamber: 25 String Quartets, 6 String Quintets, 35 Violin Sonatas, Clarinet Quintet
• Church: Masses, unfinished Requiem, Exultate Jubilate, Ave Verum Corpus

Classical Characteristics

1st Movement — Sonata Form, C major, Allegro

• Exposition: 1st Subject (b.1–4): C major, Alberti bass. Transition (b.5–12): scales/broken chords, imperfect cadence. 2nd Subject (b.13–26): G major (dominant). Codetta (b.26–28): G major.
• Development (b.29–41): Codetta theme in G minor → D minor (b.33). Sequential passage: A minor → F major.
• Recapitulation (b.42+): Themes transposed up a 4th so all end in tonic. 1st Subject: F major (subdominant). Transition: begins F major → imperfect cadence in C major. 2nd Subject: now in C major. Codetta: C major.
• Ornaments: appoggiatura (b.22), trill (b.45)

2nd Movement — Rondo Form, G major, Andante

• Main theme (b.1–16): Two 8-bar phrases, G major, Alberti bass, tonic pedal first 4 bars
• Episode 1 (b.17–24): D major (dominant), perfect cadence
• Main theme (b.25–32): Repeat of b.9–16
• Episode 2 (b.33–48): G minor (tonic minor) → Bb major → C minor → G minor
• Main theme (b.49–64): Repeat of b.1–16
• Coda (b.65–74): G major, briefly C major in b.65–66 and 69–70. Perfect cadences in G major b.67–68, 71–72, 73–74

3rd Movement — Rondo Form, C major

• A: Main melody (b.1–8) C major
• B: Episode I (b.8–20) G major (dominant)
• A: Main melody (b.20–28) C major
• C: Episode II (b.28–51) A minor (relative minor)
• A: Main melody (b.52–end) C major
• Simple duple time (2 crotchet beats per bar)

For What Instrument?

Composed 1788 — written for the fortepiano. Differences from modern piano: wood frame (not iron), leather hammers (not felt), smaller range (~5½ octaves), knee-operated sustaining pedal, lighter/thinner tone with less sustaining power.

Contemporaries of Mozart

Johann Albrechtsberger, Joseph Haydn, J.C. Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Muzio Clementi, Antonio Salieri, Karl Stamitz.

Life & Career

• First internationally recognised Norwegian composer
• Mother (fine pianist) was his first teacher
• Trained at Leipzig Conservatory — Schumann and Mendelssohn were important figures; studied composition with Carl Reinecke
• Moved to Copenhagen; met Niels Gade; influenced by Norwegian nationalist composer Rikard Nordraak
• Married cousin Nina Hagerup — authoritative performer of his songs
• Twice visited Rome (1865–70); met Liszt, who was impressed by his Piano Concerto
• 1874: Granted annual stipend by Norwegian government
• Later style became increasingly impressionistic
• Troldhaugen: His country villa near Bergen; he and his wife buried nearby; now a museum

Major Compositions

• Peer Gynt (incidental music to Ibsen's play)
• Holberg Suite
• Piano Concerto in A minor
• Norwegian folk dances, many songs
• Piano: Humoresker, Sonata in E minor, 10 sets of Lyric Pieces (66 pieces total, composed 1867–1901)

About the Lyric Pieces

Ten sets of short character pieces (66 altogether), composed 1867–1901. Short, melodious character pieces similar to a 'song without words'. Some use titles/melodies from Norwegian folk music. Wedding Day at Troldhaugen is Op. 65 No. 6, one of the longest in the collection.

Structure: Ternary (ABA) with Coda, D major

• A (b.1–10): Main theme D major, perfect cadence b.9–10. Left hand entirely perfect 5ths — rustic/folk character. Modulation to A major (dominant) b.5–6. Rich 6th, 7th, 9th chords and suspensions throughout.
• A (b.11–20): Main theme repeated, softer and higher.
• A (b.21–48): Fragments of main theme → A major; augmented triads (b.24, 29) → C major (b.25–28) → Eb major (b.30–31). Rising 4-note motive from b.5: Ab major → Db major → Eb major. 9th and 11th chords. Strong chords b.45–48: Eb major → D major (dominant 7th in b.48).
• A (b.49–56): Main theme very loud with active accompaniment.
• B (b.57–106): Tranquillo theme, G major (subdominant). Canonic imitation between hands. Tonic/dominant drone. Warm 7th chords. B major (b.75–82), then G major. Reprise b.91–106.
• A (b.107–162): Full reprise of b.1–56.
• Coda (b.163–179): D major, tonic/dominant drone in bass. 9th chords and appoggiaturas. Ends with soft perfect 5ths (b.174–178) then loud tonic chord.

Romantic Characteristics

Impressionist Tendencies

Grieg's use of parallel 5ths, pedal points, and 7th/9th chords anticipates impressionist style (Debussy, Ravel).

Key Terms

• Tempo di Marcia: at a march speed
• Poco tranquillo: a little calmer
• Una corda: use the soft pedal; tre corde: release the soft pedal
• Cantando: in a singing style
• Sopra: above
• Marcato: marked, clear, strong

Contemporaries of Grieg

Tchaikovsky (Russian), Brahms (German), Dvořák (Czech), César Franck (Belgian/French), Saint-Saëns (French), Fauré (French).

Life & Career

• Born in Mannheim; family settled in London when he was a small child
• Father Wilhelm: violinist, prominent in London concert scene
• Taught violin by father but revealed greater aptitude for piano
• Public début at age 10 at father's concert
• 1783: Became student of Muzio Clementi — decisive impact on artistic development
• Also studied theory/composition with Carl Friedrich Abel (had worked with the Bach family)
• One of the leading pianists of his generation; gave concerts throughout Europe
• Known for expressive singing quality of tone; helped establish legato touch as standard (replacing more detached 18th-century style)
• One of the first to introduce Beethoven's sonatas to English audiences
• Involved in music publishing and piano manufacturing (like Clementi)
• Founding member of London Philharmonic Society; founding board member of Royal Academy of Music
• Retired from public life 1835; died in London 1858

Compositions

• 9 piano concertos, 2 piano quintets, 100+ sonatas, many studies
• Divertimentos, fantasias, rondos, variations
• Later works use Romantic titles: capriccio, impromptu, nocturne, prelude
• Today, only his 84 Studies (Etudes Op. 30 & Op. 40) are still widely known

About the Studies

• Studio per il pianoforte Op. 30: first published 1804, 42 pieces — one of the first comprehensive collections of piano studies, predating Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum
• Op. 40 published 1810; revised edition 1835 — total of 100 studies
• Cramer wrote studies to "cultivate a legato style" and "prepare the young artist for the colossal works of Handel and Sebastian Bach"
• An etude/study = composition designed to improve a specific aspect of piano playing; technical difficulty incorporated into the main motive

Study No. 21 in G major

• Purpose: Evenness of tone and rhythm; 5-finger arpeggio patterns in right hand
• Form: Binary (AB) with coda; perpetual motion continuous semiquavers until final bar
• A (b.1–8): G major, 5-finger arpeggios in RH; LH broken octaves. b.1–2: tonic chord with ii6–V7–I cadential progression. b.3–4: modulates to D major (dominant), V7–I cadence. b.5–6: circle of 5ths sequence (B–E–A–D–G). b.7–8: repeat of b.5–6 up an octave.
• B (b.9–17): Restatement of b.1–2 in G major, softer. b.11–12: sequence using dominant 7th/tonic inversions in C, D, E minor, G major. b.13–14: circle of 5ths (C–F#–B–E–A–D–G). Climax b.15 above dominant pedal → interrupted cadence (V–vi) → V7–I in b.16–17 (with cadential 6/4).
• Coda (b.17–22): All G major; variation of main theme; tonic chord returns each bar; semiquaver pulse until final bar.
• Moderato = moderately fast; compound quadruple time; sempre legato = always smooth; dolce = sweetly

Classical Style Characteristics

Contemporaries of Cramer

Muzio Clementi (Italian, 1752–1832), Beethoven (German, 1770–1827), Hummel (Austrian, 1778–1837), John Field (Irish, 1782–1837), Carl Czerny (Austrian, 1791–1857), Ignaz Moscheles (1794–1870).

Classical (c.1750 – c.1810)

• Instrument: Fortepiano; Forms: Sonata, rondo, minuet & trio, theme & variations
• Homophonic; short balanced phrases; Alberti bass; light elegant style
• Diatonic harmonies; modulations to closely related keys (up/down a 5th)
• Composers: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Clementi, Hummel, Schubert

Romantic (c.1810 – c.1900)

• Instrument: Pianoforte (developing); Forms: Ternary, through-composed
• Rubato, spontaneity; thick textures, wide keyboard range; pedal essential
• Chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); modulations by 3rds; lyrical phrases
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Albéniz

20th Century

• Great diversity; some abandoned common-practice principles
• Atonality; serial/12-tone (Schoenberg); percussive piano (Bartók, Prokofiev)
• Nationalism (Ginastera, Mirrie Hill in Romantic/pastoral tradition)

Piano Predecessors

• Harpsichord (c.1400–1800): Strings plucked by quill; no dynamic shading from touch; up to 5 octaves
• Clavichord (c.1400–1800): Strings struck by tangent; capable of dynamics but very soft; J.S. Bach's favourite; can produce Bebung vibrato
• Fortepiano (late 18th C): Wood frame, leather hammers, ~5½ octaves, knee-operated sustaining; lighter tone, less sustaining power than modern piano

Piano Development Timeline

• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori (Florence) invents piano — "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• 1821: Double-escapement action (Sébastien Erard)
• 1826: Felt hammer coverings (Henri Pape, Paris)
• 1859: Overstringing (Henry Steinway Jr.)
• 1874: Sostenuto pedal (Albert Steinway)
• Modern piano: Iron frame, 7 octaves, felt hammers, overstrung bass, three pedals

Exam Tips

• ✅ Memorise composer birth/death dates
• ✅ Know at least 6 piano works per major composer
• ✅ Know the year each piece was composed
• ✅ Be able to describe form in ~5 sentences
• ✅ Always relate answers back to the score — point to passages
• ❌ Don't memorise bar numbers — just point to the music
• ❌ Don't list every cadence — know where structurally important ones are
• 💡 For any chord technique, explain WHY it was used, not just what it is